Hope
Up to this point, I have focused primarily on negative emotions. This is understandable, since nothingness tends to bring out reactive feelings – beginning with existential anxiety. Furthermore, the field of psychology has primarily focused on negative emotions along with dysfunctional behavior over the past two centuries. However, there is one major emotion that emerges from nothingness. This emotion is Hope. And beginning with the first years of the 21st Century, some psychologists have begun to focus on the more positive aspects of human emotions and feelings (Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). Beginning with Martin Seligman’s (1991) focus on hopefulness, Csikszentmihalyi’s (1990) introduction of a very positive experience called “Flow,” and an emphasis on appreciation (Cooperider and Whitney, 2005) there is now an emerging perspective called “positive psychology.”
While Hope, like the other emotions I have identified, concerns that which does not yet exist, it is built on the assumption that something could exist in the future that would be beneficial. For Martin Seligman, hope arises from a more general attitude of optimism. He believes that optimism can be learned and has offered many strategies and tools for building a sense of optimism (Seligman, 1991; Seligman, 2009). With optimism comes the capacity to cope with adversity (which is assigned short duration and specific causes). We are hopeful because of this diminution in attitudes of fear, regret (and the other emotions I have identified). With hope, we can set goals that are attainable and meaningful. We can remain motivated even when faced with barriers that can prove to be frustrating (temporarily).
Key to Seligman’s concept of hopefulness is the appearance of adversity—which is to be overcome by optimism and hope. Many of the theories of hope arise from the appearance of adversity. I would assign the label Adaptive Hope to this perspective. As Seligman would suggest, the alternative to hopefulness is helplessness and hopelessness. We are adaptive in our creation of hope out of nothingness so that we might not sink into a state of despair and depression.
By contrast, I would pose that some forms of hope arise not out of a desire to overcome adversity, but rather out of a desire to attain some higher level of development or at least a moment of bliss. Aspirational Hope is to be found in Csikszentmihalyi’s concept of flow and David Cooperider’s concept of appreciation. On an even broader scale it is found in the concept of self-actualization offered by Abraham Maslow (2014) who might be considered one of the influential predecessors of positive psychology. Along with the noted clinical psychologist, Carl Rogers (1995), and the psychological researcher, Henry Murray (2007), Maslow forged a humanistic psychology that provided the foundation for positive psychology and an aspirational perspective on Hope.
Adaptive Hope
Before considering the ways that Hope is manifested on behalf of aspirations, I consider the much more widely accepted notion of Hope that is serving a highly adaptive function. Specifically, much of the work on Hope comes out of studies about abuse, trauma and substance abuse treatment. Long before Seligman studied helplessness and hopelessness, there were strong advocates for the healing and liberating power of Hope. Certainly, Hope is central to the recovery-based processes of Alcoholics Anonymous, and the many other Substance Abuse support group processes. Reliance on a higher power often serves as the primary basis for this Hope. The valuable support offered by others who are also in recovering provides yet another critical source of Hope.
